Download

Organic Chemistry Second Edition, Alkanes and Cycloalkanes, David Klein, Inc

Upload
0
Embed
Share
Upload and view presentations on any device and embed the player to your website! --- > >
Upload PPT
Upload PPT

Download this Presentation

vicky

2021-9-26 published at Sports&Entertainment category

Presentation Transcript

2.4.1 Alkanes Hydrocarbons – compounds that are only composed of hydrogen and carbon Which of the molecules above is saturated with hydrogen atoms? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-2
3.4.1 Alkanes Saturated Hydrocarbons do NOT contain any pi bonds When communicating about molecules, each unique molecule must have a unique name The suffix -ane is used for saturated hydrocarbons How are the above hydrocarbons different? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-3
4.4.2 Naming Alkanes Many organic compounds have common names Some common names have been used for hundreds of years and are still frequently used. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-4
5.4.2 Naming Alkanes In 1892, as the number of known molecules grew, chemists decided that a SYSTEMATIC naming system was needed IUPAC system – International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry We can learn the IUPAC system instead of having to memorize a common name for every molecule Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-5
7.4.2 Finding The Parent Chain Find the parent chain - the longest consecutive chain of carbons Use table 4.1 to look up the prefix that corresponds with the number of carbons in the parent chain Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-7
8.4.2 Finding The Parent Chain Find the parent chain – if the parent chain has 9 carbons, the parent name is nonane Use table 4.1 to look up the prefix that corresponds with the number of carbons in the parent chain It would be smart to memorize the names for chains 1 to 10 carbons in length Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-8
9.4.2 Finding The Parent Chain Find the parent chain If there is more than one possible parent chain, choose the one with the most substituents attached What is the parent name for this compound? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-9
10.4.2 Finding The Parent Chain Find the parent chain If the parent chain is cyclic (a ring of carbons), add the prefix, “cyclo” to the beginning of the parent name Practice with SkillBuilder 4.1 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-10
11.4.2 Finding The Parent Chain Find the parent chain Give the parent name for the following compounds The parent name may NOT include carbons that are both in a ring and outside a ring. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-11
12.4.2 Identifying Substituents Identify substituents Count the number of carbons in each side group, and use the terms from Table 4.2 to name the substituents The terms in Table 4.2 are the same as those in Table 4.1, except they end in yl instead of ane. Name the parent and substituents above Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-12
13.Identify substituents (side groups) A ring can be either a parent chain or a substituent depending on the number of carbons Practice with SkillBuilder 4.2 4.2 Identifying Substituents Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-13
15.4.2 Identifying Substituents Identify substituents (side groups) Some substituents have complex branches How many carbons are in the highlighted substituent above? Why is it improper to name it a PENTYL group? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-15
16.4.2 Identifying Substituents Identify substituents (side groups) For substituents with complex branches Number the longest carbon chain WITHIN the substituent. Start with the carbon directly attached to the main chain Name the substituent (in this case butyl) Name and Number the substituent’s side group (in this case 2-methyl) The name of the substituent is (2-methylbutyl) 1 2 3 4 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-16
17.4.2 Identifying Substituents Identify substituents (side groups) Some branched substituents have common names that you may want to memorize, because they are used more frequently than their IUPAC names Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-17
18.4.2 Identifying Substituents Identify substituents (side groups) Some branched substituents have common names that you may want to memorize Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-18
19.4.2 Identifying Substituents Identify substituents (side groups) Some branched substituents have common names that you may want to memorize Practice with SkillBuilder 4.3 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-19
20.4.2 Assembling The Entire Name Number in sequence the consecutive carbons in the parent chain The number or locant is used to communicate where each substituent is attached to the parent chain The molecules above are isomers, and they have the same parent name. Their full name must differ though, because they are not identical Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-20
21.4.2 Assembling The Entire Name Guidelines to follow when numbering the parent chain If ONE substituent is present, number the parent chain so that the substituent has the lowest number possible Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-21
22.4.2 Assembling The Entire Name Guidelines to follow when numbering the parent chain When multiple substituents are present, number the parent chain to give the first substituent the lowest number possible Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-22
23.4.2 Assembling The Entire Name Guidelines to follow when numbering the parent chain If there is a tie, then number the parent chain so that the second locant gets the lowest number possible Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-23
24.4.2 Assembling The Entire Name Guidelines to follow when numbering the parent chain If there is no other tie-breaker, then assign the lowest number alphabetically Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-24
26.4.2 Assembling The Entire Name Guidelines to follow when numbering the parent chain To assemble the complete name, assign a locant to each substituent, and list them before the parent chain name in alphabetical order A prefix is used (di, tri, terta, penta, etc.) if multiple substituents are identical Prefixes are NOT used for alphabetical purposes, except for the prefix “iso” Name the cycloalkane: Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-26
27.4.2 Naming Alkanes Summary Identify the parent chain (the longest consecutive chain of carbons) Identify and Name the substituents Number the parent chain and assign a locant (and prefix if necessary) to each substituent Give the first substituent the lowest number possible List the numbered substituents before the parent name in alphabetical order Ignore prefixes (except iso) when ordering alphabetically Practice with SkillBuilder 4.4 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-27
28.4.2 Naming Alkanes Summary Name the following molecule Draw the bond-line representation for 1-tert-butyl-3-cyclopentyl-2-ethyl-4-methylcyclohexane Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-28
29.4.2 Naming Bicyclic Compounds There are many compounds with two fused rings called bicyclic compounds To name a bicyclic compound, include the prefix bicyclo in front of the normal name ending in -ane. For example, the compounds below could both be named, bicycloheptane Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-29
30.4.2 Naming Bicyclic Compounds Yet we know that if two molecules are not identical, they can not have the same exact name What is the difference between the two compounds below? The number of carbons connecting the bridgeheads is different. Count them. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-30
31.Without violating rule 1 above, give the substituents the lowest numbers possible 4.2 Naming Bicyclic Compounds To number the bicyclo parent chain, start at a bridgehead carbon and number the longest carbon chain connecters first What numbering would result if we started from the other bridgehead? Practice with SkillBuilder 4.5 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-31
32.4.2 Naming Compounds For molecules that are large and complex, there are MANY more rules to follow using the IUPAC system Often trade names are used for the sake of simplicity The molecule above is also known as esomeprazole or Nexium, which is a drug for acid reflux Just pronouncing the name of this molecule is difficult Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-32
33.4.3 Constitutional Isomers Recall that isomers are different structures made from the same atoms Isomers are NOT identical, but they have the same formula Constitutional isomers differ in connectivity Consider two of the five constitutional isomers for hexane Draw the other three C6H14 constitutional isomers Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-33
34.4.3 Constitutional Isomers The number of different possible ways to connect atoms increases dramatically when there are more atoms. Consider Table 4.4 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-34
35.4.3 Constitutional Isomers How can you recognize if two molecules are isomers? Are these two structures isomers? Do they have the same formula? If they have the same formula, they may be isomers or they may be identical You can test if they are identical using two methods Flip one of the molecules in 3D space and rotate around its single bonds until it is super-imposable on the other molecule Name them. If they have the same name, they are identical Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-35
36.4.3 Constitutional Isomers You can test if they are identical using two methods Flip one of the molecules in 3D space and rotate around its single bonds until it is super-imposable on the other molecule Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-36
37.4.3 Constitutional Isomers You can test if they are identical using two methods If they have the same name, they are identical Which method for testing whether molecules are identical is probably more sure-fire? Practice with SkillBuilder 4.6 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-37
38.4.4 Relative Stability of Isomers To rationalize and predict the outcomes of chemical reactions, it is helpful to assess stability of compounds Remember: stable = low potential energy = low reactivity = little energy will be released upon reacting If you drove a car today, what chemical reaction with alkanes did you perform? What is the general reaction equation for combustion? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-38
40.4.5 Sources and Uses of Alkanes Petroleum, which literally means rock oil is the main source of alkanes Petroleum is a mixture of hundreds of hydrocarbons, mostly alkanes with varying numbers of carbons and varying degrees of branching The alkanes in petroleum with 5 to 12 carbons per molecule are most valuable, and they can be separated from the rest of the oil by distillation HOW does distillation work? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-40
41.4.5 Sources and Uses of Alkanes Table 4.5 shows the various components of petroleum The gasoline fraction of crude oil only makes up about 19%, which is not enough to meet demand Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-41
42.4.5 Sources and Uses of Alkanes Gasoline is a mixture of straight, branched, and aromatic hydrocarbons (5-12 carbons in size) Large alkanes can be broken down into smaller molecules by Cracking Straight chain alkanes can be converted into branched alkanes and aromatic compounds through Reforming After using these processes, the yield of gasoline is about 47% rather than 19% Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-42
43.4.5 Sources and Uses of Alkanes At room temperature Small alkanes with 1-4 carbons are gasses Medium size alkanes with 5-12 carbons are liquids Large alkanes with 13-20 carbons are oils Extra large alkanes with 20-100 carbons are solids like tar and wax Super-sized alkanes called polymers can have thousands or millions of carbon atoms in each molecule What type of properties would you expect such polymers to possess? Why? Consider London forces Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-43
44.4.6 Newman Projections We know that single bonds in molecules can rotate Different rotational states are called conformations 3D Rotational conformations are difficult to represent on a 2D paper. Its useful to make a molecular model to help you visualize the structures Here are three ways to represent ethane Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-44
45.Look directly down the C-C single bond axis. This is where it is especially helpful to have a model The front carbon should eclipse the single bond and the carbon behind it Show the front carbon as a point and the back carbon as a large circle behind it Practice with SkillBuilder 4.7 4.6 Newman Projections Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-45
46.4.6 Newman Projections Draw a Newman projection for the following molecule How would it look if the observer were viewing it from the opposite direction? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-46
47.What is the angle between H atoms on the same carbon? In the Newman projection it looks like 120°. Does the angle affect stability? WHY? Think about areas of high electron density repelling The angle between H atoms on adjacent carbons is called a dihedral or torsional angle. It is 60° in the molecule below 4.7 Rotational Conformations Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-47
48.If ethane were to rotate 60° about the C-C bond, the the H atoms on adjacent carbons eclipse one another Compare the stability of the eclipsed and staggered conformations based on the repulsion of areas of high electron density What other conformations are possible? 4.7 Rotational Conformations Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-48
50.The difference in energy between the staggered and eclipsed conformations is called torsional strain With a difference of 12 kJ/mol in stability, at room temperature, 99% of the molecules will be in the staggered conformation How would the ratio change at a higher temperature? 4.7 Rotational Conformations Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-50
51.Torsional strain can also be explained using molecular orbital theory 4.7 Rotational Conformations In the staggered conformation, the bonding and antibonding MOs of neighboring carbons overlap Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-51
53.The torsional strain for propane is 14 kJ/mol, which is 2 kJ/mol more than for ethane If each H-----H eclipsing interaction costs 4 kJ/mol of stability, that total can be subtracted from the total 14 kJ/mol to calculate the contribution of a CH3-----H eclipsing interaction Practice with conceptual checkpoint 4.19 4.7 Rotational Conformations Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-53
54.The analysis of torsional strain for butane shows more variation 4.8 Butane’s Conformations Note that there are multiple staggered conformations and multiple eclipsed conformations Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-54
55.The stability of the different staggered conformations differs by 3.8 kJ/mol The anti conformation has less steric hindrance. 4.8 Butane’s Conformations Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-55
56.The least stable conformation results when the methyl groups eclipse one another Each CH3-----CH3 eclipsing interaction accounts for 11 kJ/mol of energy (torsional and steric strain). 4.8 Butane’s Conformations Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-56
57.The values in Table 4.6 can be used to predict relative energies for various conformations Practice with SkillBuilder 4.8 4.8 Butane’s Conformations Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-57
58.4.8 Rotational Conformations Draw a Newman projection for the highest and lowest energy conformations for 2,2,3,4,4-pentamethylhexane viewing the Newman projection down the C3-C4 axis Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-58
59.4.9 Cyclic Alkanes Carbon atoms in alkanes are sp3 hybridized What bond angles are optimal for such carbons? If cycloalkanes were flat, what bond angles would be expected? To optimize the bond angles, most cycloalkanes are NOT flat in their most stable conformation Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-59
60.4.9 Cyclic Alkanes Why are heats of combustion reported per CH2 group? Considering the data in Table 4.7, which ring has the least ring strain? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-60
61.4.9 Cyclic Alkanes Why does it make a molecule less stable to have angles less than 109.5°? Why does it make a molecule less stable to have angles greater than 109.5°? Ring strain results from more than just angle strain Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-61
62.4.9 Cyclopropane Cyclopropane is 44 kJ/mol less stable than cyclohexane per CH2 group. It is highly strained and very reactive Angle strain Bond angles of 60° cause electron pair repulsion in adjacent bonds Inefficient sigma bond overlap Torsional strain – eclipsing C-H bonds all the way around the ring – see the Newman projection Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-62
63.4.9 Cyclobutane Cyclobutane is 27 kJ/mol less stable than cyclohexane per CH2 group. It is also strained and reactive Angle strain results from bond angles of 88°, although it is not as severe as the 60° angles in cyclopropane Slight torsional strain results because adjacent C-H bonds are neither fully eclipsed nor fully staggered Why does it adopt a puckered conformation? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-63
64.4.9 Cyclopentane Cyclopentane is only 5 kJ/mol less stable than cyclohexane per CH2 group Angles are close to the optimal value Identify the minimal but significant torsional strain in the structure. It is very helpful to use a handheld model Why does it adopt the envelope conformation rather than a flat conformation? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-64
65.4.10 Cyclohexane Cyclohexane is considered to have ZERO ring strain in its optimal conformation, THE CHAIR No angle strain - angles must be 109.5° No torsional strain - all adjacent C-H bonds must be staggered It helps to make a model as a visual aid! WHY is this called THE CHAIR? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-65
66.Other conformations of hexane exist but are a bit less stable. Consider THE BOAT Why is this conformation called the BOAT? 4.10 Cyclohexane No angle strain - angles are 109.5° Torsional strain. Use a molecular model to identify all four pairs of eclipsing C-H bonds Draw a Newman projection that illustrates the torsional strain Steric strain – flagpole interactions. WHERE? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-66
67.4.10 Cyclohexane The twist boat alleviates some of the torsional strain in the boat Why is the half-chair so unstable? Rotate the C-C single bonds in your handheld cyclohexane model to form each of the conformations and analyze its energy Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-67
68.4.11 Drawing Chairs It is critical to draw a CHAIR properly. Use three sets of parallel lines SIX of the atoms attached to the chair are axial. Axial groups point straight up and down alternating around the ring. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-68 CORRECT INCORRECT
69.4.11 Drawing Chairs The other SIX atoms attached to a chair are in equatorial positions. Equatorial substituents are positioned at angles parallel to the sets of parallel lines making up the chair itself Axial groups shown in red, equatorial groups shown in blue Practice with SkillBuilders 4.9 and 4.10 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-69
70.4.12 Monosubstituted Cyclohexane The vast majority of cyclohexane molecules will exist in the chair conformation at any given moment. WHY? When energy (45 kJ/mol) is available, it can flip from one chair form to another. Why is energy needed? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-70
71.4.12 Monosubstituted Cyclohexane Flipping a chair is not like flipping a pancake. Flipping a chair is the result of ONLY C-C single bonds rotating. The Newman projection below shows how flipping occurs ONLY through rotating bonds and how it will affect the axial or equatorial position of the substituent Such flipping is MUCH easier to see with a handheld model. Try it yourself! Practice with SkillBuilder 4.11 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-71
72.4.12 Monosubstituted Cyclohexane If both versions of the CHAIR were equally stable, you would have a 50/50 mixture of axial/equatorial Consider methylcyclohexane Why does the equatorial chair dominate the equilibrium? Does the axial substituent cause additional angle or torsional strain? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-72
73.4.12 Monosubstituted Cyclohexane The axial substituent causes additional steric strain Such steric crowding is called 1,3-diaxial strain. WHY? Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-73
74.4.12 Monosubstituted Cyclohexane 1,3-diaxial interactions are equivalent to gauche interactions When the substituent is in the equatorial position, it is equivalent to an anti interaction Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-74
75.4.12 Monosubstituted Cyclohexane Larger groups will cause more steric crowding in the axial position. Consider Table 4.8 Practice with Conceptual Checkpoint 4.30 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-75
76.4.13 Disubstituted Cyclohexane With multiple substituents, solid or dashed wedges are used to show positioning of the groups or by showing the groups in either axial or equatorial positions An UP substituent could be axial or equatorial depending on how the ring is flipped Convince yourself that all of the molecules above are identical. It may help to use a handheld model Practice with SkillBuilder 4.12 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-76
77.4.13 Disubstituted Cyclohexane Consider both chair conformations for the following molecule Which is more stable? WHY? Do the same analysis for the following molecule Practice with SkillBuilder 4.13 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-77
78.4.14 Cis-Trans Isomerism When naming a disubstituted cycloalkane, use the prefix cis when there are two groups on the same side of the ring Use the prefix trans when two substituents are on opposite sides of a ring Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-78
79.4.14 Cis-Trans Isomerism These two structures are NOT constitutional isomers. WHY? They are stereoisomers. HOW? Practice with conceptual checkpoints 4.36-4.38 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-79
80.4.15 Polycyclic Systems There are many important structures that result when more than one ring is fused together We already looked at bicycloalkanes. Here are a couple more Camphor and Camphene are fragrant natural products isolated from evergreens Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-80
81.4.15 Polycyclic Systems Decalin is formed by fusing two chairs together Diamonds are formed by fusing many chairs together three dimensionally in all directions Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-81
82.4.15 Polycyclic Systems There are many biologically important steroids, all of which involve fusing cycloalkanes as part of their structure Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-82
83.Additional Practice Problems Name the following molecule Draw the bond-line representation for 1,2,6,7-tetrabromo-4-(1,2-dichloroethyl)nonane. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-83
85.Additional Practice Problems Describe how heat of combustion is used to determine the relative stabilities of hydrocarbons with the same formula. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-85
86.Additional Practice Problems Given the following Newman Projection, name the molecule, draw its bond-line structure, and draw a Newman projection showing its highest energy conformation illustrating the torsional strain. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4-86

Latest Release